Tag: earth sciences

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Metamorphic Rocks: properties, formation, and subtypes!

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Learning about rocks and the rock cycle in your classroom this year? You may already know that there are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. In this post, we will take a closer look at metamorphic rocks. Get ready to explore the formation, subtypes, properties, and examples of metamorphic rocks!

For Teachers: If you’re an educator planning to teach rocks, great visuals and activities are key to deepening understanding! Try my my Rocks Unit – a complete set of all the printable worksheets, activity directions, and visuals you’ll need (plus you’ll support this blog with your purchase! ❤️)

How do metamorphic rocks form?

Metamorphic rocks form deep below the Earth’s surface. Metamorphic rocks form when other rocks experience lots of heat and pressure underground. The heat comes from the Earth’s interior and the pressure comes from the weight of overlying layers of rock and sediment.

Every metamorphic rock was once a different rock, called the parent rock, or protolith. The protolith can be sedimentary, igneous, or even a different metamorphic rock. For example, when the sedimentary rock sandstone is exposed to intense heat and pressure, it can become the metamorphic rock quartzite. This transformation, called metamorphism, forces the minerals in the parent rock to reorganize into a more compact structure, making metamorphic rocks quite sturdy and dense.

Metamorphism can only happen when the amount of heat and pressure are just right. If there is too little heat and pressure, metamorphism will not happen. If the heat and pressure grow too high, the rock will melt into magma instead.

Properties of Metamorphic Rocks

There are many different metamorphic rocks, and they do not all look the same. Shimmering schist, sturdy slate, and glimmering marble are all metamorphic! Their varied appearances are influenced by several properties including their mineral composition, grain (crystal) size, and foliation. Let’s learn some more about each of these properties…

Composition

As you now know, metamorphic rocks all share one important thing in common: they formed under heat and pressure. However, each rock has its own special blend of minerals. Metamorphic rocks are made of one or more minerals. If you can identify the mineral(s) in a rock, it will help you identify the rock.

Grain Size

Metamorphic rocks are made of crystals of minerals. Crystals come in different sizes. Rocks with large crystals can appear sparkly or shimmery, like schist or marble. But not all crystals are big. In fact, some rocks are made of crystals so tiny that you need a microscope to see them. Rocks made of microscopic crystals may appear more dull.

In general, bigger crystals form under higher heat and pressure. A rock with large, visible crystals formed under higher heat and pressure than a rock made of tiny crystals.

Foliation

Some (but not all) metamorphic rocks have foliation – which means banding or layering. Foliation presents in several different ways, depending on the conditions while the rock is formed and the mineral crystals in the rock. A foliated rock with large crystals formed under high heat and pressure. This rock may appear to have bands or stripes of different colored mineral crystals. An example of this is gneiss, which appears to have alternating bands of light and dark crystals. However, a foliated rock with microscopic crystals formed under lower heat and pressure. This rock may appear to be made of layers or plates, like slate.

diagram of igneous rock textures: phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, bubbly, glassy, and pyroclastic

Metamorphic Subtypes

There are two types of metamorphic rocks: foliated and nonfoliated. With a little practice, you can learn to tell them apart. Let’s learn a little more about each.

Metamorphic Foliated

Metamorphic foliated rocks have bands or layers. Some, like gneiss, have alternating bands of light and dark crystals. Others, like phyllite and slate, look like they are made of sheets or layers. Foliation forms when a rock is being squeezed hardest in a particular direction rather than from all sides. This may happen when a rock is buried deep underground. The directed pressure forces the minerals to line up in the same direction, creating the bands or layers.

Metamorphic Nonfoliated

Metamorphic nonfoliated rocks form when the pressure comes from all sides or if the minerals do not line up. Consequently, nonfoliated rocks do not have bands or layers. Instead, nonfoliated rocks are usually a single solid color and made of interlocking mineral crystals. These crystals can be quite large or appear fine-grained. Some nonfoliated rocks, like marble, are prized for their strength and beauty, which makes them popular in construction and fine arts.

Teaching rocks? Check out my printable handouts with info on metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks!

Examples of metamorphic rocks

Here are some examples of common metamorphic rocks. If you’re studying rock identification or creating a rock collection, you’ll want to make sure to examine the following rocks:

Foliated Rocks

  • Gneiss
  • Schist
  • Phyllite
  • Slate

Nonfoliated Rocks

  • Marble
  • Quartzite
  • Hornfels

What’s Next?

For everyone: there’s more to learn about rocks! Take a closer look at igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks. Or, continue reading more about the rock cycle or the difference between rocks and minerals.

For educators: check out my posts on how to set up a rock ID lab activity, directions for a fun rock ID review bingo game, and a list of rock and mineral activity ideas that you can try in your classroom!

Study this topic with Wild Earth Lab!

I’ve already created an easy way for you to make teaching rocks & minerals in your classroom fun and engaging! This set includes all the printable materials you need for studying rocks and minerals, including diagrams, readings, activity directions, and worksheets!

Explore more lessons from Wild Earth Lab:

If you enjoyed this post, I know you will love trying my other printable science and nature units in your classroom too!

View All Units
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Are you interested in reading more posts like this? Subscribe or follow Wild Earth Lab using the links below!

References and Further Reading

  1. Earle, S. (2019). Physical Geology. BCcampus Open Education. (Chapters 2-7). Available: https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/
  2. Johnson, C., Affolter, M.D., Inkenbrandt, P., & Mosher, C. (2017). An Introduction to Geology. Salt Lake Community College. (Chapters 3-6). Available: https://opengeology.org/textbook/
  3. Jones, C. E. (n.d.). Igneous Textures. University of Pittsburg. Department of Geology and Planetary Science. Available: https://sites.pitt.edu/~cejones/GeoImages/2IgneousRocks/IgneousTextures.html
  4. Plummer C.C., Carlson D.H., & Hammersley L. (2019). Physical Geology. McGraw-Hill Education. (Chapters 1-7).

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Sedimentary Rocks: properties, formation, and subtypes!

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Are you ready to learn all about rocks and the rock cycle in your classroom this year? If so, it’s important to know all about the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. In this post, we will take a closer look at sedimentary rocks. Get ready to learn all about the formation, subtypes, properties, and examples of sedimentary rocks!

For Teachers: If you’re an educator planning to teach rocks, great visuals and activities are key to deepening understanding! Try my sedimentary rock printables, also found within my complete Rocks Unit – a complete set of all the printable worksheets, activity directions, and visuals you’ll need (plus you’ll support this blog with your purchase! ❤️)

How do sedimentary rocks form?

Sedimentary rocks form at or near the Earth’s surface.  They form from deposits of sediments, minerals, and/or organic matter.

On the Earth, forces like water and shifting temperatures work endlessly to break rocks down. The tiny broken-down pieces of rocks are called sediments. Some of the minerals in rocks may also dissolve in water, the same way sugar dissolves in tea. We call the dissolved minerals solutes.

Sediments and solutes move and are deposited in new places through a process called erosion. As sediments build up, something special happens. Sediments compact together under their own weight or are cemented together by crystallizing minerals. This forms new rocks, known as sedimentary.

Properties of Sedimentary Rocks

There are many different sedimentary rocks, and they do not all look the same. Soft mudstones, rough sandstones, and even coal are all sedimentary! Their varied appearances are influenced by several properties including their mineral makeup and grain (sediment particle) size. Let’s learn more about some of the properties of sedimentary rocks…

Sedimentary Grain Sizes

You already know that many sedimentary rocks are made from compacted and cemented sediments. The size of those sediments determines the type of sedimentary rock. Mudstones are made from the tiniest clay particles that are so small you cannot see them. Sandstones are made from little grains of sand, which you can see with your naked eye if you look at them up close. Conglomerate and breccia are made from the largest sediments – like gravel and small pebbles.

diagram of igneous rock textures: phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, bubbly, glassy, and pyroclastic

Geologists call the size of the particles in a rock the “grain size”. Grain size is important because it impacts the porosity and permeability of a rock. Very porous rocks like sandstone and conglomerate make good aquifers that store water underground. Do you know where your drinking water comes from? If you drink well water, then your drinking water comes from an aquifer!

Sedimentary Composition

Sedimentary rocks contain compacted and cemented grains, crystals of mineral precipitates, or sometimes organic materials. However, each rock has its own special blend of minerals.

Some sedimentary chemical rocks (those made from recrystallized solutes) contain carbonates. Carbonates are minerals that react with acid – just like how baking soda reacts with vinegar. Geology students find out if a rock contains carbonates by placing a drop of acid on the rock and watching for bubbling or fizzing. Rocks that fizz or bubble in a reaction with acid contain carbonates.

Other sedimentary rocks contain organic carbon and consequently burn. Geologists test for organic matter by attempting to combust a rock. The organic matter in the rock will burn in a combustion reaction – allowing the geologist to see how much of the rock was organic.

Sedimentary Subtypes

There are several subtypes of sedimentary: clastic, chemical, organic, and biochemical. They are formed from different materials. Let’s learn a little more about each.

Sedimentary Clastic Rocks

Sedimentary clastic rocks, such as sandstone and siltstone, form from tiny solid particles of rock called sediments. Sediments form through a process called weathering, in which rocks break down over time into smaller pieces. These pieces move around thanks to forces like flowing water, wind, and gravity, eventually coming together to form new rocks.

But how do loose sediments become a solid rock? Two processes, compaction and cementation, are responsible. Compaction happens when sediments are buried and pressed into a rock by the weight above. Cementation happens when water evaporates, leaving behind minerals that act like cement, holding the sediments together. Clastic rocks vary in their grain sizes, from microscopic particles in mudstone to large gravel pieces in breccia and conglomerates.

Sedimentary Chemical Rocks

Have you ever stirred sugar into water until it disappears?  Although you cannot see the sugar, it is still there, dissolved in the water. Like sugar, many minerals dissolve in water too! Most liquid water on Earth contains dissolved minerals.

Now perhaps you are wondering: how does water make rocks? Imagine an ancient ocean, with water rich in dissolved minerals. As time passes, the ocean begins to shrink, eventually drying up completely. When the water evaporates, the minerals from the water recrystallize to form sedimentary chemical rocks. This process, called precipitation, is the opposite of dissolving. Sedimentary chemical rocks are crystalline but often look fine-grained. Some are made of carbonate and react strongly to acid. Rock salt and limestone are two examples of sedimentary chemical rocks.

Sedimentary Organic Biochemical Rocks

Sedimentary organic and biochemical rocks are similar to sedimentary clastic rocks. However, they aren’t composed of sediments but rather form from buried plant and animal matter. Through compaction and cementation, the matter eventually becomes rock. Examples include coal, formed from compressed plant matter, and coquina, made of compacted and cemented shell fragments. These rocks can tell us fascinating stories about life on Earth in prehistoric times!

Examples of sedimentary rocks

Here are some examples of common sedimentary rocks. If you’re studying rock identification or creating a rock collection, you’ll want to make sure to examine the following rocks:

Clastic Rocks

  • Mudstone
  • Siltstone
  • Sandstone
  • Conglomerate
  • Breccia

Chemical Rocks

  • Limestone
  • Rock salt
  • Chert
  • Ironstone

Biochemical and Organic Rocks

  • Fossiliferous Limestone
  • Coquina
  • Diatomite
  • Anthracite
  • Coal

What’s Next?

For everyone: there’s more to learn about rocks! Take a closer look at igneous rocks. Or, continue reading more about the rock cycle or the difference between rocks and minerals.

For educators: check out my posts on how to set up a rock ID lab activity, directions for a fun rock ID review game, and a list of rock and mineral activity ideas that you can try in your classroom!

Study this topic with Wild Earth Lab!

I’ve already created an easy way for you to make teaching rocks & minerals in your classroom fun and engaging! This set includes all the printable materials you need for studying rocks and minerals, including diagrams, readings, activity directions, and worksheets!

Explore more lessons from Wild Earth Lab:

If you enjoyed this post, I know you will love trying my other printable science and nature units in your classroom too!

View All Units
Build-Your-Own Bundle & Save!

Are you interested in reading more posts like this? Subscribe or follow Wild Earth Lab using the links below!

References and Further Reading

  1. Earle, S. (2019). Physical Geology. BCcampus Open Education. (Chapters 2-7). Available: https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/
  2. Johnson, C., Affolter, M.D., Inkenbrandt, P., & Mosher, C. (2017). An Introduction to Geology. Salt Lake Community College. (Chapters 3-6). Available: https://opengeology.org/textbook/
  3. Jones, C. E. (n.d.). Igneous Textures. University of Pittsburg. Department of Geology and Planetary Science. Available: https://sites.pitt.edu/~cejones/GeoImages/2IgneousRocks/IgneousTextures.html
  4. Plummer C.C., Carlson D.H., & Hammersley L. (2019). Physical Geology. McGraw-Hill Education. (Chapters 1-7).

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Igneous Rocks: properties, formation, and subtypes!

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Are you studying rocks and the rock cycle in your classroom this year? If you’re ready to take a deep dive into all things rocks, it’s important to know all about the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. In this post, we will take a closer look at igneous rocks. Get ready to learn all about the formation, subtypes, properties, and examples of igneous rocks!

For Teachers: If you’re an educator planning to teach rocks, great learning resources are key to deepening understanding! I think you and your students will love my complete Rocks Unit – a set of all the printable worksheets, activity directions, and visuals you’ll need (plus you’ll support my blog with your purchase! ❤️)

How do igneous rocks form?

All igneous rocks form from molten rock. When molten rock is underground, we call it magma. Molten rock is only called lava when it’s on Earth’s surface. The intense pressure and heat deep underground keep magma in the molten (liquid) form. However, when the heat and pressure lessen, the molten rock solidifies, forming crystals. This can happen very slowly while the rock is still underground. If the molten rock reaches the Earth’s surface, it cools much more rapidly. This is because the surface of the Earth is very cool compared to the Earth’s insides.

Properties of Igneous Rocks

There are many different igneous rocks, and they do not all look the same. Bubbly pumice, smooth obsidian, and sparkly granite are all igneous rocks! Their varied appearances are influenced by their mineral makeup and the specific conditions during their formation. Igneous rocks come in a wide variety of different textures and compositions. Let’s learn more about both of these properties…

Igneous Textures

As molten rock cools, it forms crystals. The size of these crystals depends on how quickly the rock cools. Slow cooling provides time for big, interlocking crystals to form. Rapid cooling makes tiny, fine-grained crystals. We use special terms to describe these different textures: phaneritic (big crystals), aphanitic (tiny crystals), and porphyritic (a mixture of both).  But that’s not all! Some lava rocks, like pumice, have a bubbly texture filled with tiny holes. Others, like obsidian, are smooth and look glassy. There are even rocks made of many pieces of volcanic debris all stuck together, giving them what is known as a pyroclastic texture.

diagram of igneous rock textures: phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, bubbly, glassy, and pyroclastic

Igneous Compositions

Igneous rocks also come in different colors, which can tell us a lot about the minerals inside them – i.e., their mineral compositions. Light-colored minerals rich in silicon and oxygen are called felsic minerals. Rocks with lots of felsic minerals, like granite and rhyolite, are usually light and warm in color. On the other hand, dark-colored minerals rich in iron or magnesium are called mafic minerals. Rocks with lots of mafic minerals, like gabbro and basalt, are mostly dark gray, black, or green.

Subtypes

There are two main subtypes of igneous rocks: intrusive and extrusive. The main difference between them is where they form. Intrusive rocks form within the Earth while extrusive rocks form on the Earth’s surface.

Igneous Intrusive Rocks

More specifically, an igneous intrusive rock starts as magma, which is what we call molten rock located underground. The magma is insulated deep within the Earth, so it cools very slowly. The slow cooling allows plenty of time for large interlocking crystals to form. Granite, diorite, and gabbro are examples of igneous intrusive rocks.

Igneous Extrusive Rocks

In contrast, igneous extrusive rocks form when hot lava cools on the Earth’s surface such as when a volcano erupts. Lava cools very quickly on the surface, so there is not enough time for big crystals to form. If you are trying to decide if an igneous rock is intrusive or extrusive, texture is your biggest clue! While intrusive rocks are always made of large interlocking crystals, extrusive rocks come in a variety of other textures: fine-grained, glassy, bubbly, and more! Basalt, rhyolite, and pumice are igneous extrusive rocks.

Examples of igneous rocks

Here are some examples of common igneous rocks. If you’re studying rock identification or creating a rock collection, you’ll want to make sure to examine the following rocks:

Aphanitic or Porphyritic Rocks

  • Granite
  • Diorite
  • Gabbro
  • Peridotite

Phaneritic Rocks

  • Rhyolite
  • Andesite
  • Basalt

Vesicular Rocks

  • Pumice
  • Basalt
  • Scoria

Others (pyroclastic & glassy)

  • Tuff
  • Volcanic Breccia
  • Obsidian

What’s Next?

For everyone: there’s more to learn about rocks! Continue reading more about the rock cycle or the difference between rocks and minerals.

For educators: check out my posts on how to set up a rock ID lab activity, directions for a fun rock ID review game, and a list of rock and mineral activity ideas that you can try in your classroom!

Study this topic with Wild Earth Lab!

There’s no need to scramble to put together the perfect rocks lesson  – I’ve already created it for you! This set includes all the printable materials you need for studying rocks and minerals.

Explore more lessons from Wild Earth Lab:

If you enjoyed this post, I know you will love trying my other printable science and nature units in your classroom too!

View All Units
Build-Your-Own Bundle & Save!

Are you interested in reading more posts like this? Subscribe or follow Wild Earth Lab using the links below!

References and Further Reading

  1. Earle, S. (2019). Physical Geology. BCcampus Open Education. (Chapters 2-7). Available: https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/
  2. Johnson, C., Affolter, M.D., Inkenbrandt, P., & Mosher, C. (2017). An Introduction to Geology. Salt Lake Community College. (Chapters 3-6). Available: https://opengeology.org/textbook/
  3. Jones, C. E. (n.d.). Igneous Textures. University of Pittsburg. Department of Geology and Planetary Science. Available: https://sites.pitt.edu/~cejones/GeoImages/2IgneousRocks/IgneousTextures.html
  4. Plummer C.C., Carlson D.H., & Hammersley L. (2019). Physical Geology. McGraw-Hill Education. (Chapters 1-7).

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Freshwater Visualization: Learning Activity With Kitchen Measurements

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It’s hard to imagine just how little freshwater exists on Earth compared to saltwater. If you’re teaching the water cycle, your students might be amazed to learn that less than 3% of the Earth’s water is freshwater—the rest is saltwater. In this post, I’ll show you a hands-on freshwater learning activity that uses simple kitchen measurements to help your students visualize these proportions. This activity is a powerful way to help students truly understand how rare freshwater is!

Before we dive in: If you’re an educator planning to teach the water cycle, great learning resources are key to deepening understanding! I think you and your students will love my complete Water Cycle Unit (plus you’ll support my blog with your purchase! ❤️)

Background Information

Most of the water on earth is saltwater (~97.5%), like the water in our oceans. Also, a significant amount of earth’s water is frozen such as in glaciers and ice sheets (~1.7%). Fresh groundwater makes up ~0.75% of the water on Earth, and fresh surface water such as the water in streams and lakes is about ~0.01% of the water on Earth. Additionally, about ~0.001% of earth’s water is in its gas form as water vapor in our atmosphere. Having trouble visualizing this?  This activity can help you visualize the relative amounts of freshwater on Earth!

Materials

Gather the following materials. You can complete this entire lab with common kitchen measuring cups.

  • ~1 gallon of water
  • Large 1+ gallon bucket or container
  • Liquid measuring cup
  • Tablespoon
  • 8 ice cubes
  • Teaspoon
  • Eye dropper
  • Extra containers to hold water

Step-by-Step Directions

Work through the following steps with your students. Explain what each measurement represents as you work through the activity.

  1. Measure 1 gallon (16 cups) of water into the bucket. This represents all the water on earth.
  2. From the water in the bucket, remove ¼ cup of water and set aside. Replace it with 8 ice cubes. These represent the earth’s frozen water such as glaciers and ice sheets.
  3. From the water in the bucket, measure 2 tablespoons into an extra container.  This represents the Earth’s fresh groundwater.
  4. From the water in the bucket, use an eyedropper to measure 8 drops of water into an extra container. This represents all the surface water on earth, such as streams and lakes.
  5. From the water in the bucket, use an eyedropper to measure 1 drop of water into an extra container. The amount of water vapor in our atmosphere at any time is represented by slightly less than this amount!
  6. Look at the water remaining in the bucket. This represents the saltwater on earth, mostly water in our oceans but also including salty groundwater near coasts and saltwater lakes, ponds, and marshes.

Free Printable Directions for This Activity

A printable version of these directions can be found on my free resources page. As my email subscriber, you’ll gain access to the free resources page and get updates about new activity ideas, project guides, new freebies and units, and cool science topics to teach in your classroom! Subscribe now to access the freebies page and more!

Water cycle diagram, measuring cups, free printable science activity guide for homeschooling, at-home-learning, or elementary school age children.

What’s Next?

If you’re teaching the water cycle, I think you’ll love some of my other blog posts too. Read my posts about explaining the water cycle in 10 stages and human impacts on the water cycle. You can also learn how to measure different water cycle processes including evaporation, precipitation, infiltration, and stream flow!

Explore more lessons from Wild Earth Lab:

If you enjoyed this freshwater learning activity, I know you will love trying my printable science and nature units in your classroom too!

View All Units
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Are you interested in reading more posts with science activity ideas? Subscribe or follow Wild Earth Lab using the links below!

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Explaining The Water Cycle in 10 Stages

a water cycle diagram and a teacher and student looking at a book
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The water cycle is the process that keeps our planet’s water in constant motion. From evaporation to groundwater flow, each step plays a vital role in shaping our environment and life on our planet. In this post, we’ll explore 10 key processes in the water cycle, breaking down how each one works.

For teachers: If you’re an educator planning to teach the water cycle, great learning resources are key to deepening understanding! I think you and your students will love my complete Water Cycle Unit (plus you’ll support my blog with your purchase! ❤️)

Evaporation

The sun is like the engine driving the water cycle. That’s because the sun provides energy for water to evaporate. Evaporation is the process of water changing from a liquid to a gas, called water vapor. Evaporation may happen anywhere that there is water; water evaporates from oceans, lakes, streams, soils, and even from raindrops as they fall.

You can observe and measure evaporation in your classroom. It’s an easy, hands-on science experiment. To try it, find the directions in my blog post about measuring evaporation.

Vapor Transportation

When you think of water moving, you may think of rivers and streams. But water also moves around in our atmosphere. Even though we cannot see it, air currents move huge amounts of water in the form of vapor across continents. This is why water that evaporates over an ocean can fall as rain over land.

Condensation

Condensation is the opposite of evaporation. It is the process of water vapor becoming liquid water. Condensation happens in our atmosphere all the time. It happens because as vapor rises in the atmosphere, it cools, making it difficult to stay in the vapor form. This causes little liquid water droplets to form.

If you look up at the sky and see a cloud, you are seeing condensation in action! That’s right: when water condenses in our atmosphere, it creates clouds. Once the water condenses into droplets, they start to fall towards the Earth. If the droplets make it all the way to the ground without re-evaporation, we get rain (or snow or hail if they freeze!).

You can learn more about condensation and the role it plays in forming deserts in my post about the rain shadow effect!

Precipitation

Precipitation happens when water falls to the Earth’s surface in liquid or solid form. This includes water in the form of snowflakes, hail, sleet, or liquid droplets (rain). Precipitation falls onto land or into bodies of water. A lot of precipitation falls directly into the oceans.

When precipitation falls on land, freshwater is formed! When water evaporates from the ocean, the salts are left behind. If the water falls on land, we get freshwater. That freshwater will start slowly making its way back to the ocean in streams and seeping into groundwater, or get stored in lakes and glacial ice.

You can make your own precipitation gauge and measure precipitation with a plastic bottle and a few other household items. Try it out in my blog post on how to measure precipitation with a DIY rain gauge!

Runoff

Runoff is when water flows downhill. This includes rivers, streams, and any water flowing over the Earth’s surface. Runoff happens thanks to gravity – surface water always flows from high to low elevation. You won’t see a stream flowing uphill. Little streams start high up in the mountains. They flow downhill and across the plains, joining together to make big rivers. Rivers make their way to the coasts, where the freshwater is returned to the ocean and mixed with saltwater.

You can learn how to measure the water flowing through a stream in my blog post about stream measurements. It’s a simple activity that can be completed with a few household items and some math skills!

Ice Storage

Not all the water in the water cycle is on the move! Some water becomes trapped for long periods as snow and ice. In cold places like tall mountains and around the poles, frozen water doesn’t thaw, even in summer. In these places, water is stored as ice for centuries or longer! Examples include ice caps, ice sheets, valley glaciers, snowfields, and sea ice.

If you’re interested in learning more about snow and ice, read my blog posts about snow water equivalent and snow hydrology.

Infiltration

Infiltration is when water seeps from the land’s surface down into the soil. This happens when rain falls onto the soil and seeps in. Water also infiltrates downwards through the bottoms of some lakes and streams. Conversely, groundwater may also flow upwards sometimes – into gaining streams and springs.

If you’re interested in learning more about soil infiltration, try measuring it yourself! You can find directions in my blog post on measuring soil infiltration rates.

Plant Water Uptake

Did you know that plants play a role in the water cycle? All plants take up water from the soil through their roots. A single tree may seep up hundreds of gallons of water each year. Now imagine all the trees in a forest doing this – that’s a lot of water!

Transpiration

The water taken up by plant roots doesn’t just disappear. Some of the water is used in a chemical reaction called photosynthesis, in which it is combined with carbon dioxide gas to form oxygen and sugar.

The rest of the water evaporates out of the plant’s leaves in a process called transpiration. Plants have tiny pores in their leaves called stomata that open to release water vapor – similar to how you have pores on your skin that release sweat. The water vapor from the stomata is released into the atmosphere.

Groundwater Flow

Some of the water in the soil gets taken up by plant roots near the ground’s surface. But plenty of water continues to seep down into deeper sediments and rocks. The water fills the tiny gaps in the sediments and rocks known as pore spaces. Water in pore spaces is moving and flowing, just like water on the surface. But groundwater typically moves much, much more slowly than rivers and streams. Some groundwater eventually makes its way back to the surface, for example, into springs.

Teaching the Water Cycle

There’s no need to scramble to put together the perfect materials for a Water Cycle lesson  – I’ve already created them for you! This set includes all the printable materials you need for studying the Water Cycle.

What’s Next?

Continue reading about human impacts on the water cycle. Or, find classroom activities for water cycle processes in my posts outlining classroom activities for evaporation, precipitation, infiltration, and stream flow!

I also created a few water cycle-related free printables and activities, which are available to my email subscribers on my free resources page. These free materials include my original hand-drawn water cycle diagram, water bingo, and printable directions for a freshwater visualization activity.

Find your next science topic from Wild Earth Lab:

If you enjoyed this post, I know you will love trying my other science and nature units in your classroom or homeschool too!

View All Units
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Are you interested in reading more posts like this? Subscribe or follow Wild Earth Lab using the links below!

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5 Reasons to Teach Soil Science in Your Classroom

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Soil is often overlooked as a classroom topic, yet it’s a fascinating and practical area of science to explore with one’s students. Whether you’re introducing elementary schoolers to the basics of earth science or tackling advanced environmental science concepts with high schoolers, soil science offers countless opportunities for hands-on learning with real-world applications. Here are five compelling reasons to incorporate soil science into your classroom curriculum.

But first: if you’re already on the hunt for great soil science teaching materials, I think you and your students will love my complete soil science unit. It includes directions for five soil lab activities, worksheets, readings, and engaging diagrams. Plus you’ll support this blog with your purchase!

1. Soil Science is an Interdisciplinary STEM Subject

One of the most exciting things about teaching soil science is its interdisciplinary nature. It bridges various STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) fields, letting your students experience how scientific disciplines interconnect. For example, students will use math to calculate soil porosity and permeability and apply chemistry to analyze pH levels and organic matter content. Biology comes into play when learning about soil microorganisms! And even physics will come up when looking at how water moves through different soils.

Teaching soil science allows you to create lessons that naturally integrate multiple disciplines. For instance, you might try a lab where students add water to sandy and silty soils, calculate porosity, and graph their results. You can read my blog post about how to calculate porosity in your classroom! Activities like this, while simple, reinforce STEM skills!

a lab bench with a clipboard, some soil in dishes, and a bottle of liquid
A soil organic matter lab activity. Find directions online or printable versions.

2. Soils Impact Our Food, Water, Climate, and Ecosystems

Soil is so much more than just dirt! Soil is necessary for food production, water filtration, carbon storage, and ecosystem health. Teaching students about soil helps them understand the connections between soil and global challenges like food security and climate change.

For example, healthy soils are necessary to grow crops that feed Earth’s growing population. Soils also act as natural filters, purifying water as it percolates through its layers. Furthermore, soils tie into ecosystems and the climate, since they store carbon and other nutrients. Studying soil science is a great way to begin a discussion on sustainability and environmental conservation with your students.

3. Soil is Great for Hands-on Activities!

When you teach soil science, you’ll have the chance to try many hands-on learning activities with your students. For example, you could analyze soil textures – for example, by doing the soil textures “jar lab” I wrote previously about in my blog. The basic idea is this: students mix soil samples with water, shake them, and let the particles settle into layers of sand, silt, and clay. The larger, heavier particles settle out first, which lets your students observe the amount of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. This simple experiment visually demonstrates the concept of soil texture and allows students to connect theoretical knowledge with real-world observations.

Another activity is testing soils’ organic matter content. This activity relies on chemistry: when applied to soil, hydrogen peroxide reacts with organic matter, causing bubbling and fizzing. If you’d like to try this activity, you can find step-by-step directions in my blog post about detecting soil organic matter with hydrogen peroxide.

Truly, there’s no shortage of soil science experiments and activities to try. Additional options could include measuring soil pH levels and growing plants in different soil types to observe how soil composition impacts growth. These hands-on labs make lessons more interactive and also teach science skills like hypothesis testing and data collection.

a jar with soil and water and a stopwatch on a table next to handouts and worksheets
A soil textures jar lab. Find the directions online or printable versions.

4. Soil Knowledge is Useful in Many Career Paths

A little soil science knowledge goes a long way for students who dream of working outdoors or making a difference in the environment. Professions in agriculture, conservation, environmental science, land management, and urban planning all require a deep understanding of soil. Additionally, careers in engineering, hydrology, and ecology often intersect with soil science, offering even more opportunities for students with this foundational knowledge.

Introducing soil science in the classroom helps students see how their lessons could lead to fulfilling careers. You can highlight professionals who work in these fields, invite guest speakers, or assign projects where students explore soil-related careers. These activities provide opportunities to explore a variety of career paths for students who may not yet see how their classroom studies relate to their future goals.

corn plant on field
Soil knowledge is key in many careers, including agriculture. Photo by Flambo on Pexels.com

5. Soil Science Gets Students Outside

Another great reason to teach soil science is the opportunity to take your class outdoors. No matter where you live, there’s soil to explore! Outdoor activities like digging into a local soil horizon, observing soil erosion, or starting a classroom composting project can help students apply their classroom knowledge to real-world observations.

Fieldwork can be as simple or elaborate as you want it to be. You might organize a short walk around your school grounds to collect soil samples or partner with a local park for a more in-depth study. Outdoor experiences are sure to enrich your soil lessons. Plus, they’re a great way to encourage physical activity and break up the monotony of a traditional classroom setting.

Teaching Soil Science in Your Classroom

If you’re an educator planning to teach soil science, great learning resources are key to deepening understanding! I think you and your students will love my complete Soil Science Unit (plus you’ll support my blog with your purchase!)

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Teaching Climate Change: Positive Feedback Loops & Sea Ice

positive feedback loop diagram
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Are you searching for a science lesson that brings climate change to life in your classroom? Positive feedback loops are not just fascinating—they’re a powerful way to help students grasp the dynamics behind our warming planet. By teaching about positive feedback loops, like the relationship between sea ice, albedo, and temperature, you’ll equip your students with a deeper understanding of one of the mechanisms fueling anthropogenic climate change. Let’s explore this complex topic so you can plan an impactful and accessible lesson for your learners!

Before we dive in: If you’re an educator planning to teach positive feedback loops in climate change, having great visuals to deepen understanding is key! I think you and your students will love my positive feedback loop diagram (plus you’ll support my blog with your purchase! ❤️)

positive feedback loop diagram

What is a Positive Feedback Loop?

In science, a positive feedback loop is a cycle that keeps reinforcing or amplifying itself. A simple example is when laughter spreads. If your friend starts laughing, it might make you laugh too, which then makes your friend laugh even harder. This cycle continues, making everyone laugh more.

A positive feedback loop is called “positive”, because each part of the cycle strengthens the next, not because it is necessarily a good thing. For example, a forest fire can create a positive feedback loop. As more trees catch fire, the fire gets bigger and hotter, which makes it easier for the flames to spread to even more trees.

What is Albedo?

Have you ever noticed that a black T-shirt feels hotter than a white one on a sunny day? This is because of something called albedo. When sunlight hits a surface, some energy reflects off while the rest is absorbed, making the surface warmer. Albedo is a measure of how much sunlight a surface reflects. Light-colored or shiny surfaces have a high albedo, meaning they reflect more sunlight. Dark surfaces, like a black T-shirt, have a lower albedo, so they absorb more energy from the sun and feel warmer.

Side note: if you’re a teacher planning a lesson on albedo, read my blog post with a step-by-step guide to an albedo and sea ice experiment for the classroom!

Positive feedback loops play a role in climate change, and it begins with albedo. Sea ice in polar regions is light-colored and reflective, so it has a higher albedo than dark ocean water. When sea ice melts because of anthropogenic (human-caused) climate change and rising temperatures, the reflective ice is replaced by dark ocean water. The dark ocean absorbs more heat from the sun without the reflective ice to protect it. This causes the ocean to warm more and faster, which increases temperatures and speeds up climate change. As more sea ice melts, it creates a cycle that leads to even more melting.

iceberg

A Positive Feedback Loop and Climate Change

Let’s break down a positive feedback loop step-by-step:

1. Temperatures Rise

Average global temperatures are rising. This is one of the main effects of climate change.

2. Sea Ice Melts

Ice melts at 32°F (0°C). When the average global temperatures rise, more sea ice melts.

3. Ocean’s Surface Becomes Exposed

As sea ice melts, the ocean surface is uncovered. Large areas that were once covered by light-colored ice are now dark ocean water.

4. Albedo Decreases

Light-colored sea ice reflects more sunlight than dark ocean water. When the ice melts, the ocean reflects less sunlight.

5. Ocean Water Warms

Without reflective sea ice, the ocean’s water absorbs energy from the sun. This causes the ocean to warm up. And the cycle begins again.

Why it Matters

Why should you care about ice melting in faraway places like the poles? Polar ice melting is a problem for several reasons. First, as ice melts, it raises sea levels around the world. This leads to flooding along coastlines, putting coastal and island communities at risk of disappearing underwater and displacing the people living there. Another issue is the loss of important habitats for animals in the Arctic and Antarctica.

Additionally, as polar regions warm, permafrost (frozen ground) also thaws, releasing greenhouse gases and contributing to further climate change. This is a second example of a positive feedback loop in climate change because more warming causes more gases released, which causes more warming.

Teach Positive Feedback Loops and Climate Change:

There’s no need to scramble to pull together materials for a positive feedback loop lesson – I’ve already created them for you! Support this blog when you purchase my Positive Feedback Loop Diagrams and my Albedo Lab Activity materials:

Upgrade Option: both of these sets are also found within my complete Antarctica Unit:

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7 Rocks & Minerals Activity Ideas: learning activities to try in your classroom!

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Wild Earth Lab is supported by readers like you. This post includes links to my own products and affiliate products. If you purchase through links on my site, I may earn a small commission at no additional cost to you.

Rocks and minerals are an important topic in the field of geology. Learning about rocks and minerals can be so fun for both kids and adults. Here are 7 hands-on rocks and minerals activity ideas to try out in your classroom or homeschool.

A note for teachers: if you’re planning to teach rocks & minerals, great learning resources are key to deepening understanding. That’s why I created my complete Rocks & Minerals Unit. It’s packed with hands-on lab activities, thoughtfully crafted visuals, and all the worksheets and handouts you need to study rocks and minerals. Plus, every purchase helps support this blog! ❤️

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1. Rock Cycle Model

Try making a model of the rock cycle. This is a popular rock and mineral activity for the classroom! There are many ways to do this – with chocolate, marshmallows, Starburst candies, crayons – the list goes on.

The basic concept is this:

  • Sedimentary Rocks: big solid chunks lightly compacted until they stick together. This can be done by cutting up the material into pieces and then squeezing the pieces together in your hands until they stick together.
  • Metamorphic Rocks: warped under heat and/or pressure, but not enough to fully melt. This is done by briefly warming your material to a moderate temperature in an oven and then applying pressure.
  • Igneous Rocks: fully melted, the re-solidified material. This can be done by fully melting your material in an oven and then allowing it to cool at room temperature.
melted chocolate in white bowl
You can use chocolate to model the rock cycle! Melted chocolate symbolizes molten rock! Photo by Monstera Production on Pexels.com

This activity is great for teaching the basics of the rock cycle before continuing on with the other rocks and minerals activity ideas.

2. Mineral Lab

Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Geologists can examine minerals for their physical properties and then identify them. A minerals lab is super fun because it involves testing minerals for magnetism, acid reaction, and other unique physical properties! To test for these properties, you will need to make or buy a mineral test kit, such as this test kit (external link).

With a little practice, you and your students can identify common minerals too. Read my separate post here about how to set up your own minerals lab in your classroom. You can also download my Minerals Mini Study, which includes all of the worksheets, handouts, and directions that you’ll need for an awesome mineral lab in your classroom!

The activities in the blog post come from my Minerals Mini Study. Download the mini study with worksheets, handouts, directions, and more.

3. Guided Geology Hike

Are there any national parks or state parks in your area? Some have rangers who will put on guided nature hikes covering many topics, including local geology.

If not, you could also reach out to a local geology expert to join your class or homeschool group on a hike to learn about geology. When I was a graduate student, a homeschool group reached out to me to lead a geology hike like this. We hiked a short way through a canyon and talked about how plate tectonics and flowing water helped shape the area.

4. Make Rock Candy

This is a tasty way to learn about mineral precipitates, which you may know form some of our sedimentary rocks, such as limestone. This activity takes several days, during which you will watch crystals form! You can follow a rock candy recipe, such as this recipe (external link).

5. Rock Identification

Rock ID can be challenging, but it is so rewarding to be able to identify common rocks in your area. Learn about foliation, grain size, rock compositions, textures, and more! If you are looking for a good place to get started with Rock ID, I think you’ll love my Rocks Mini Study. It includes all the printable handouts, worksheets, and directions you will need for an awesome Rocks Lab! Another fun activity to try is Rock ID Bingo – more on this below!

If you are looking to learn how to identify rocks, try out my Rocks Mini Study. It includes all the handouts, worksheets, and directions for a rock ID activity!

6. Play Rock or Mineral Bingo

These are great review games for practicing rock and mineral identification. Each student gets a bingo card with different rocks or minerals. The teacher then reads out the properties of a mystery rock or mineral. The students must figure out which rock or mineral it is, then mark it on the bingo card!

I’ve created these mineral bingo and rock bingo sets (complete with calling cards!) to help you play this game in your classroom:

7. DIY Fossils

Unlike living things, which come and go, rocks stick around for incredibly long periods. This allows rocks to act as time capsules, preserving clues about our planet’s past – fossils! Learn about how fossils form by creating your own fossils (external link).

Bonus: see real fossils up close for inspiration! Look for a geology museum in your area to see collections of amazing and rare gems, minerals, rocks, fossils, and much more! You can also look for gem and mineral show events in your area (external link).

paper dyeing with brown dried leaves
Photo by Paul Seling on Pexels.com
white dinosaur skeleton displayed on a wooden table in a museum
Photo by Ansbert Bignon on Pexels.com

Study Rocks and Minerals with Wild Earth Lab

Many of the rock and mineral activity ideas from this post are found in or go great with my complete Rocks and Minerals Unit! It is a complete set of printable materials including worksheets, handouts, classroom posters, lab activities, and much more!

Explore curriculum from Wild Earth Lab:

If you enjoyed the rocks and minerals activity ideas in this post, I know you will love using my environmental science materials in your classroom!

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Rocks vs Minerals: the difference between rocks and minerals

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If you are studying rocks and minerals, you may be wondering: “what is the difference between rocks and minerals? Are they the same?”. The simple answer is no, they are not the same. You see, minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Below, we will dive into exactly what a rock and a mineral are, using baked goods as an analogy!

Some common minerals: pyrite, fluorite, gypsum, galena, calcite, quartz, feldspar, and biotite

Rocks vs Minerals: a baking analogy

You may be wondering: are rocks and minerals the same? Well, not quite. Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. If a rock was a baked good, minerals would be its ingredients – sugar, flour, salt, and so on. Imagine reaching into your pantry for a scoop of sugar. Every time, without fail, it is the same pure substance, consistent throughout. Minerals are just like that – they always have the same unique makeup, called a chemical composition. Take the mineral calcite, for instance: always made from a chemical compound called calcium carbonate.

Expanding on our baking analogy, let’s explore what happens when you use that sugar in a recipe. Depending on the ingredients you use and how you combine and bake them, you could whip up cookies, bread, pancakes, and more. Similarly, rocks like granite, sandstone, and schist are made from different mineral combinations and form through distinct processes. They share a few of the same mineral ingredients, but are distinguishable from one another.

Now, imagine chocolate chip cookies as a specific rock, like granite. No two chocolate chip cookies are identical, just like no two pieces of granite are identical. Furthermore, there are countless different chocolate chip cookie recipes, each with their own unique twist, but all are alike in that they are baked in an oven and share the same basic ingredients. Similarly, even though not all granite is the same, it always forms from magma cooling underground and is made from the same essential mineral ingredients. You see, unlike minerals, rocks do not stick to a single formula. Each one is its own unique blend crafted by nature.

close up of a woman making a dough with eggs and flour on the table

Why study rocks and minerals?

From the surface to Earth’s deepest layers, rocks form much of our planet. Unlike living things, which come and go, rocks stick around for incredibly long periods. This allows rocks to act as time capsules, preserving clues about our planet’s past. Imagine rocks as storytellers, helping us learn about ancient oceans, ice ages, prehistoric swamps, volcanic eruptions, and more!

Rocks and minerals do much more than tell us about the past. In fact, chances are that rocks and minerals play a role in your day-to-day life! Think about the buildings, roads, and technology you use every day – many of them are made using rocks and minerals. Glass, cement, metals, and even the graphite in pencils all come from rocks and minerals! Minerals can even be food – for example, table salt comes from the mineral halite! And don’t forget that certain minerals and rocks are valued for their beauty and are used in jewelry making, sculptures, and other fine arts.

Studying minerals? Be sure to grab my double-sided mineral ID flashcards!
You can also get common rock flashcards here! Identifying characteristics are listed on the back of each flashcard.

Examples of Minerals

  • Apatite
  • Biotite
  • Calcite
  • Copper
  • Diamond
  • Feldspar
  • Galena
  • Gypsum
  • Halite
  • Magnetite
  • Muscovite
  • Pyrite
  • Pyroxene
  • Quartz
  • Talc

Examples of Rocks

  • Basalt
  • Breccia
  • Conglomerate
  • Coquina
  • Diorite
  • Gneiss
  • Granite
  • Limestone
  • Marble
  • Pumice
  • Quartzite
  • Rhyolite
  • Sandstone
  • Schist
  • Slate

Wild Earth Lab’s Rocks & Minerals Unit:

If you are preparing to study rocks and minerals with your class or homeschool, look no further than my Rocks and Minerals Unit. It is a huge set of geology activities, labs, printables, readings, posters, and much more!

Explore curriculum from Wild Earth Lab:

If you enjoyed this post, I know you will love using my environmental science materials in your classroom!

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References and Further Reading

  1. Earle, S. (2019). Physical Geology. BCcampus Open Education. (Chapter 2). Available: https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/
  2. Geology.com (n.d.). What are Minerals? Available: https://geology.com/minerals/
  3. GeologyScience (2018). Top 10 Minerals Used in Everyday Life. Available: https://geologyscience.com/gallery/geologic-lists/top-10-minerals-used-in-everyday-life/
  4. Johnson, C., Affolter, M.D., Inkenbrandt, P., & Mosher, C. (2017). An Introduction to Geology. Salt Lake Community College. (Chapter 3). Available: https://opengeology.org/textbook/
  5. Plummer C.C., Carlson D.H., & Hammersley L. (2019). Physical Geology. McGraw-Hill Education. (Chapters 1-2).

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Minerals Lab: a hands-on geology activity for your classroom!

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Wild Earth Lab is supported by readers like you. This post includes links to my own products and affiliate products. If you purchase through links on my site, I may earn a small commission at no additional cost to you.

In this lab, you will dive into the amazing world of minerals! Minerals are the building blocks of rocks, but they are also so much more. In fact, chances are that rocks and minerals play a role in your day-to-day life! Think about the buildings, roads, and technology you use every day – many of them are made using rocks and minerals. Glass, cement, metals, and even the graphite in pencils all come from rocks and minerals! Minerals can even be food – for example, table salt comes from the mineral halite!

In this activity, students will begin by sorting and comparing different mineral samples. This will help your students begin thinking about the similarities and differences between minerals – an important step in learning to identify minerals. Then, students will learn about the physical properties of minerals. Your students will love testing minerals for acid reactions, magnetism, streak, and more! Finally, end this lab by attempting mineral identification.

A Special Note for Teachers: In this post, you will learn how to set up a minerals lab in your classroom. You can also get printable versions of these directions, worksheets, handouts, and directions to use during this lab in my Minerals Mini Study or in my complete Rocks and Minerals Unit! (And you’ll support this blog with your purchase! 💚)

The activities in the blog post come from my Minerals Mini Study. Download the mini study with worksheets, handouts, directions, and more.
Materials (per lab group)
  • Mineral Sample Set
    • Assemble your own test kit with any 10+ mineral samples (e.g., feldspar, quartz, calcite, halite, muscovite, pyrite, magnetite, gypsum, amphibole, and pyroxene)
  • Mineral Test Kit (assemble your own, or purchase a pre-made test kit)
    • Hand lens or microscope
    • Black and white streak plates
    • Magnet
    • Glass plate or nail
    • Copper coin
    • Eye dropper/acid bottle
    • Juice of a lemon
  • Scale
  • Beaker of water
  • Mineral info, such as these Double-sided Mineral Flashcards
  • Student worksheets
  • Permanent marker (for instructor use only)
  • Tiny labeling stickers (for instructor use only)
Set Up
  1. Label the mineral samples with numbers. This can be done with small labeling stickers and a permanent marker.
  2. Place a set of minerals at each lab station.
  3. If you do not have access to mineral samples, it is possible to complete parts 1 and 2 only of this lab using mineral picture cards like these instead.
  4. Assemble the test kits, which you will use for parts 3 and 4 only. Each lab group should have one of each: hand lens/microscope, magnet, beaker of water, scale, lemon juice with eye dropper, streak plate, glass plate, and copper coin.
Part 1: Sorting Minerals
  1. Ask students to look over the mineral samples and pick them up, feel them, etc.
  2. Students should sort the minerals. Which minerals:
    • Are light colored?
    • Are dark colored?
    • Are see-through?
    • Look like metal?
    • Are soft or breakable?
    • Are hard?
    • Have flat surfaces?
    • Are jagged or rough?
  3. Students may record their answers in Part 1 on the student worksheet, available here.
You can find all the worksheets for completing this lab activity in my Minerals Study on Etsy!
Part 2: Compare and Contrast
  1. Students will compare and contrast pairs of minerals. You should select up to 6 pairs of minerals for students to compare and contrast.
  2. Write the pairings you selected on the board for the students to see, using the minerals’ numbers rather than their names. Below are some good pairs for this part, but work with what is available to you.
  3. For each pairing, students should find at least one difference and one similarity.
  • Feldspar and quartz
  • Calcite and halite
  • Muscovite and gypsum
  • Pyrite and magnetite
  • Quartz and gypsum
  • Amphibole and pyroxene
Part 3: Physical Properties of Minerals
  1. Briefly explain the physical Properties of Minerals: color, streak, luster, hardness, magnetism, acid reaction, density, cleavage/fracture, and crystal form. More info on these properties can be found in this blog post.
  2. Then give the students time to examine each mineral for each property. Work through one property at a time, examining all minerals for the property.
  3. Students should use a table to record each physical property for each mineral.
  4. Below are a few key things to keep in mind as you teach the physical properties of minerals:
Mineral physical properties – key reminders
  1. Color: do not rely on color alone to identify a mineral. This property varies a lot and can be deceiving.
  2. Streak: scratch the mineral across both black and white streak plates like sidewalk chalk. Please note that some minerals will leave no streak at all.
  3. Luster: this is a descriptive property, describing the “shininess” of a mineral. A mineral’s luster is described using words like “glassy”, “metallic”, “dull”, “sparkly”, and more.
  4. Hardness: scratch a mineral against each of the items from the Mohs hardness scale (fingernail, coin, glass plate, streak plate). If the item scratches the mineral, then the mineral is softer than the item. If the mineral scratches the item, then the mineral is harder than the item. The streak plate can be confusing, because minerals that are harder than the streak plate do not leave behind any streak.
  5. Magnetism: perhaps the most straightforward property; this simply means whether or not the mineral is attracted to a magnet.
  6. Acid reaction: a drop or two of lemon juice should be enough to observe a reaction with calcite.
  7. Density: use the scale to measure the mass of a mineral. Then place the mineral into a beaker of water. The volume of water displaced is equal to the mineral’s volume. Density equals mass divided by volume.
  8. Planes of cleavage, fracture and crystal form: these can be challenging properties for beginners, and may be skipped. For advanced groups, teach these properties and include them under the “other properties” column on the observations worksheet. You can read more about these properties here.
Mohs hardness scale
Mineral Planes of Cleavage and Fracture
Part 4: Mineral ID
  1. If you attempt this step, keep in mind that mineral identification is challenging, especially for beginners, and may not be possible for all samples in a classroom setting.
  2. Students will need to compare their recorded observations to a list of known physical properties for various minerals, such as these mineral ID flashcards.
  3. Then, students should make an educated guess on the identity of each mineral sample.
Studying minerals? Be sure to grab my double-sided mineral ID flashcards!

Rocks and Minerals Unit

All of the lessons and materials seen in this post can also be found in my complete Rocks and Minerals Unit.

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References and Further Reading

  1. Earle, S. (2019). Physical Geology. BCcampus Open Education. (Chapter 2). Available: https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/
  2. Johnson, C., Affolter, M.D., Inkenbrandt, P., & Mosher, C. (2017). An Introduction to Geology. Salt Lake Community College. (Chapter 3). Available: https://opengeology.org/textbook/
  3. Plummer C.C., Carlson D.H., & Hammersley L. (2019). Physical Geology. McGraw-Hill Education. (Chapters 1-2).

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